Analysing Business Ethics And Corporate Social Responsibility Philosophy Essay

Analysing Business Ethics And Corporate Social Responsibility Philosophy Essay The question of business ethics has been at the forefront of business studies for several decades. It is an issue that has been discussed by everyone from philosophers to economists, many of whom placed an emphasis on the social responsibility of corporations and their shareholders. With the unprecedented success and profits that corporations have experienced within recent history it is no surprise that ethical problems may arise. However, is it the responsibility of corporations to help eradicate such problems even if doing so is in direct conflict with shareholder interests? This paper will explain the stakeholder and stockholder theories of corporate management and argue in favor of the stakeholder theory on the basis of the harms the shareholder argument poses in terms of both social responsibility and the stability of the corporation. In order to fully concretize its argument it will use research of Edward Freeman, Milton Friedman, and John Boatright. Stakeholder theory is one of the most well-known theories of business management. Managing for stakeholders is based on a set of relationships among groups which have a stake in the activities that make up the business. This can include but is not limited to customers, suppliers, employees, stockholders, banks, etc. Executives play an integral role in the activity of the business since they are expected to look after the health of the overall enterprise, to keep varied stakes moving in roughly the same direction, and to keep them in balance. (Freeman R. E.: 2008, Managing for Stakeholdersp.63) Freeman explains that the primary duty of the executive is to create as much value as possible for stakeholders. Where stakeholder interests clash, the executive is required to work to find solutions and bring these interests together. Executives must understand that business is fully situated in the realm of humanity. (Freeman R. E.: 2008, Managing for Stakeholdersp.64) The benefit of the stakeholder theory is that businesses, and the executives who manage them, actually do and should create value for customers, suppliers, employees, communities, and financiers (or shareholders). Edward Freeman explains in his paper The Purpose of the Corporation that the model of business is no longer workable, is resistant to change, not consistent with the law, and for the most part, simply ignores matters of ethics. He states, each of these flaws is fatal in the business world of the twenty-first century. (Freeman, R. E.: 2008, Managing for Stakeholders, pp. 56) By using the stakeholder as a basic unit of analysis, it is more difficult to ignore matters of ethics. To explain this, Edward Freeman argues that the primary responsibility of the executive is to create as much value for stakeholders as possible, and that no individual stakeholders interest is more important than that of another stakeholder. This in turn guarantees the rights of all the stakeholders. T he problems that pose risk lie within the shareholders capitalism theory. Furthermore, if the stakeholder theory is examined, one would find that all stakeholders have rights and if one is denied theirs, the others are undeniably affected. Edward Freeman further supports this with an argument about character. He explains that one of the strongest arguments for stakeholder theory concerns character because it asks executives and entrepreneurs to consider the question of what kind of company they want to create and build. (Freeman, R. E.: 2008, Managing for Stakeholders, p. 66) Finally, Freeman poses the pragmatist argument which seeks to know how we can live better, how we can create both ourselves and our communities in ways where values such as freedom and solidarity are present in our everyday lives to the maximal extent. (Freeman, R. E.: 2008, Managing for Stakeholders, p.66). For the pragmatist, business and its close relative capitalism have evolved into a social practice, an important one that we use to create value and trade with each other. Consequ ently, the stakeholder model is always aiming to find the best possible solution for all parties involved in the corporation. Its social responsibility lies within the company as a whole. Social responsibility comes in many forms and recognizing any one form means it is required to recognize all. Conversely, Friedman states that if these are social responsibilities, they are of individuals not of a business. (Friedman, The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase Its Profits, p.52) He contends that, in any situation, the executive would be spending someone elses money for the social responsibility. For example, if the executive makes expenditures on reducing pollution beyond the amount that is in the best interest of the corporation; and he then must hire hard-core unemployed applicants instead of better qualified workmen, he is spending someones money by reducing returns to stockholders for his environmental responsibility and lowering wages of some employees by spending what he would have given to a more experienced employees. According to Friedman, if the employees, stockholders, or consumers, want to spend their money towards social responsibility then it is their money and their decision. Friedman concludes his paper by stating; in my book Capitalism and Freedom, I have called it a fundamentally subversive doctrine in a free society, and have said that is such a society, there is one and only one social responsibility of business to use its resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits so long as it stays within the rules of the game, which is to say, engages in open and free competition without deception or fraud. (Friedman, The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase Its Profits, p.55) Friedmans point here can be used to understand the stakeholders benefit because it is its own form of social responsibility. Who is to say that social responsibility can only be defined in narrow terms? What is clear is that no one set of criteria can unequivocally define it and if under these ambiguous circumstances a corporation manages to achieve it, then it has guaranteed the rights of the stakeholders, thus creating social responsibility. Moreover, John Boatright explains that advocates of stakeholder management are correct in their insistence that the modern for-profit corporation should serve the interests of all stakeholder groups. Where stakeholder management fails is in its refusal to recognize that a business organization working in the interests of shareholders does not have to be in conflict with the interests of stakeholder groups. Boatright assumes that this failure is due in large part, to a second mistake on the part of proponents of stakeholder management. Stakeholder management assumes that management decision making is the main vehicle by which the benefits of corporate wealth creation are distributed among stakeholders, but these benefits can also be obtained in other ways; namely by groups interacting with a corporation through the market. This is where Boatright is taking a risk in his argument because he wants the corporation to obtain its benefits externally when it can be done internally. The bene fit of the stakeholder theory is that all the rights are guaranteed from the top down, top stakeholders all the way to the consumers at the bottom of the model. When all stakes have their rights preserved by the executive equally, there is no need for the corporation to act in the best interest of the shareholders solely. The managerial model positions its shareholders at the center of the firm as the principal group for managers to worry about. Increasing shareholder value has become common wisdom in modern business and many companies have instituted complex incentive compensation plans aimed at aligning the interests of executives with the interests of shareholders. (Freeman, R. E.: 2008, Managing for Stakeholders page.57) Edward Freeman poses three arguments in regards to shareholders. Firstly, he explains that management of the firm becomes separated from the ownership of the firm and in order to be successful the top managers of the company were required to satisfy the owners, employees, suppliers, unions, and customers. If managers worried about the shareholders only, the stakeholders will in turn be harmed. When the stakeholders are harmed, the whole corporation is harmed leading to instability. From another angle, Freeman explains that the model poses harm and risk because it is so rigid. It unabashedly puts shareholders interests over and above the interests of customers, suppliers, employees, and others, as if these interests must conflict with each other. The only change that matters is the kind that is oriented toward shareholder value. In addition, Edward Freeman also explains that the law of corporations gives a less than clear answer to the question of in whose interest and for whose benefit the corporation should be governed. It has evolved to give a de facto standing to the claims of groups other than shareholders. Even more harmful is the fact that the shareholder model is not consistent with basic ethics. Practically any business decision has some ethical content or concern. Milton Friedman refers to this by stating that, responsibility of the executive is to make profits subject to law and ethical custom. The purpose of ethics is to create a better world for all of us. (Freeman, R. E.: 2008, Managing for Stakeholders p.60) Numerous theorists have argued that the main reason that the dominant model of managing for shareholders is a good one is that it leads to the best consequences for all involved. These arguments invoke Adam Smiths idea of the invisible hand, whereby each business actor pursues her own self-interest and the greatest good of all actually emerges. (Freeman, R. E.: 2008, Managing for Stakeholders p.65) However, in reality, each business actor can have a different approach and a different idea of their own self-interest which in turn, may harm the corporation internally and externally. Although the stakeholder concept has been developed in various ways, it has expressed the moral prescription that managers, in making decisions, ought to consider the interests of all above those of the few. This is proven in the laws that have evolved to protect the interests of local communities and employees of corporations through unionization. Laws such as The Equal Pay Act of 1963, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, The Clean Water Act of 1977, and the Clean Air Act of 1990, all have helped stakeholders to achieve a great level of equality. The laws that are relevant to business have evolved differently around the world, to take into account the interests of groups other than just shareholders. (page 58) The dispute between stockholder and stakeholder management revolves around the question of how best to enable each stakeholder group or corporate constituency to benefit from the wealth-creating activity of business. Stakeholder management is correct in its emphasis on the moral requirement that every stakeholder group benefit from corporate activity and to make managers aware of their responsibility to create wealth for the benefit of everyone. The stakeholder management theory is superior to the shareholder theory because in such a system of corporate governance, all the groups would share the control of the firm. Hence, the interests of the involved stakes would be to maximize the profit for all stakeholders. The most important point, however, is the social responsibility of the managers to their corporations. As has been proven, the stakeholder management theory has the responsibility to assure the stakes interests and rights through a clear guideline that has been proven to work in modern day corporations.

Describing Language And Language Skills Education Essay

Teaching is a multidimensional activity that involves societal, educational, pedagogical, linguistics, personal, and cognitive dimensions. In the last 20 fiveyears, in general instruction the cognitive dimension of instruction has been recognizedas cardinal to successful instruction. The last decennary has witnessed steady growing in thestudy of instructors ‘ knowledge. Research workers have paid more attending to the survey of instructors ‘ belief about instruction, acquisition, scholars, and the impact it has on learning patterns, activities, and larning results ( Tillman, 2000 ; Shavelson, and Stern,1981 ; Burns, 1992 ; Eisenhart et. al. , 1998 ; Fang, 1996 ; Richardson, 1996 ; Kagan,1992 ; Reynold, 1992 ) . Research into instructors ‘ knowledge has non been restricted toone or few specific subjects or content countries. The impact of instructors beliefs on their instruction is being studied across subjects and educational scene every bit diverse as general instruction, mathematics ( Ernest 1989 ; Shuck 1997 ; Karaagac and Threlfall ; Raymond, 1997 ) , second/ foreign linguistic communication acquisition, ( Farrell, and Patricia,2005 ) , reading ( Beach, 1994 ) , and chemical science ( Brisco, 1991 ) . It has been studied in pre-service and in-service contexts, different educational degrees: kindergarten, simple schools, high schools and grownup instruction. During 1980s and the old ages after, research workers investigated a figure of different facets and dimensions of instructors ‘ knowledge. The chief focal point was on analyzing the manner instructors think about their ain work, their mental procedures in planning and transporting out their instructions, the sort of determinations made in the class of instruction, and how these beliefs may alter over clip. Some of the research countries in teachers'cognition include analyzing instructors ‘ knowledge in general and how they construct their constructs and theories of instruction ( Clandinin & A ; Connelly, 1988 ; Leinhardt,1990 ) , instructors ‘ apprehension of the instruction procedure ( Peterson & A ; Comeaux,1987 ) , instructors ‘ belief about instruction, pupils, instructors, and the acquisition procedure every bit good as their ain efficaciousness in bring oning alteration in their pupils ( Hollingsworth, 1989 ; Kagan & A ; Tippins, 1991 ; Tamir, 1991 ) . A nother country of research in instructors ‘ belief is analyzing the instructional ideas, actions, and determination devising in the schoolroom ( Fogarty, Wang, & A ; Creek, 1983 ; Magliaro & A ; Borko, 1986 ) . Changes in teachers'beliefs that occur as a consequence of professional growing and instruction experiences have besides been examined ( Bullough, 1991 ; Calderhead, 1991 ) . Teachers ‘ beliefs are non easy to specify. Nor are they easy to operationalize and analyze. Kagan ( 1992 ) views them as tacitly held premises and perceptual experiences about instruction and acquisition. Pajares ( 1992 ) and Richardson ( 1996 ) view them as personal concepts of instructors that can assist understand their determinations and instruction patterns. The belief system consists of the information, attitudes, values, theories, and premises about instruction, acquisition, scholars, and other facets of instruction. Some of these beliefs are rather general while some are really specific. Harmonizing to Johnson ( 1994 ) instructors ‘ beliefs influence their judgement and perceptual experience, the schoolroom activities they use, and it can lend to the betterment of learning patterns and teacher instruction plans. The belief system is argued to function as a base for the activities and patterns instructors use in the schoolroom. It guides instructors in the class of the patterns they have in the schoolroom. Hampton ( 1994 ) contends that instructors ‘ beliefs can find the manner they approach their instruction. In brief, research findings show that instructors have complex thought and reading of instruction and the context upon which they reflect, decide, and act was a broad and rich mental context ( Elbaz, 1983 ; Clandinin, 1986 ) . There are different ways instructors may develop their beliefs. It can be socially constructed as a consequence of their ain personal experiences and influences of the scenes in which they work. Teachers ‘ beliefs are built up over clip. They are derived from instructors ‘ preparation plans, pre-service plans, and prior acquisition and instruction experiences. Brog ( 2003 ) and Richards, Gallo and Renandya ( 2001 ) argue that instructors ‘ beliefs are derived from their anterior experiences, school patterns, educational theory, reading, their single personalities, and a figure of other beginnings. Eisentein-Ebsworth and Schweers ( 1997 ) see instructors ‘ positions shaped by pupils ‘ wants, syllabus outlooks, and anterior experiences. This cognition may alter over clip as instructors interact with pupils and acquire feedback from them. Following the involvement in general instruction and teacher instruction in teachers'cognition, research workers in 2nd linguistic communication acquisition took the thought and started to analyze linguistic communication instructors ‘ pedagogical beliefs in 2nd linguistic communication acquisition ( Breen,1991 ; Cumming, 1993 ; Freeman & A ; Richards ; 1996 ; Johnson, 1994 ; Richards, 1998 ; Richards & A ; Nunan, 1990 ; Woods, 1996 ) .Teachers ‘ belief is now viewed as a complex cognitive activity ( Farrell and Patricia, 2005 ; Brog, 2003a, 2003b. ; Mitchel and Hooper, 1992 ; Johnston, and Goettsch, 2000 ) . Research into instructors ‘ knowledge has both provided good penetrations into instructors ‘ knowledge at the same clip raised more inquiries about several issues of instructors ‘ beliefs. A more specific facet of instructors ‘ knowledge in linguistic communication instruction is instructors ‘ beliefs about grammar and different facets of grammar instruction. Some of the inquiries that have non been yet answered include how much clip should be devoted to grammar? What grammatical points should be taught? How should grammatical points be sequenced? What activities are more appropriate for different contexts? Grammar has a contested nature and its instruction and acquisition has seendifferent yearss. Grammar instruction has ever created uncertainnesss and raised complex and challenging pedagogical, lingual and curricular issues. With the outgrowth of a new method or theory grammar becomes the centre of attending and with the death of the theory or pattern it would be wholly abandoned. For times grammar was cardinal to category activities and at times it was overlooked. With such fluctuation it is non hard to conceive of linguistic communication instructors develop different positions on grammar in the procedures of going a instructor. In the late 1980s forsaking of focal point on signifier was advocated by communicative motion. In the last decennary the issue of focal point on signifier has been a hot subject and raised many inquiries and challenges to applied linguists and linguistic communication instructors. There have been a figure of surveies on instructors ‘ beliefs about grammar and grammar instruction. Ng & A ; Farrell ( 2003 ) and Yim ( 1993 ) investigated the extent to which instructors ‘ theoretical beliefs influenced their schoolroom grammatical patterns, and found grounds to propose that what instructors say and do in the schoolroom are governed by their beliefs. Farrell ( 1999 ) examined the belief system of pre-service instructors of English grammar in footings of its influence on instruction pattern, and found grounds to propose that these beliefs may be immune to alter. Similarly, Richards, Gallo, and Renandya ( 2001 ) examined the beliefs of a group of in-service class instructors about grammar. The consequences showed that many instructors followed a communicative attack to instruction, while some of the respondents stated that they had house belief in the importance of direct grammar instruction in linguistic communication learning.They besides stated that th eir EFL/ESL pupils asked for grammar instruction. Research into the impact of formal grammar instruction has covered several facets of grammar instruction. These include inductive versus deductive approached to the instruction of grammar ( Shaffer, 1989 ; Dekeyser, 1995 ) , feedback and rectification of mistakes ( Chaudron, 1977 ; Dekeyser, 1993 ) , usage of grammar nomenclature in grammar instruction ( Berman, 1979 ; Garrett, 1986 ) , and impact of grammar pattern on L2 acquisition ( Ellis, 1991 ; Johnson, 1994 ) . In malice of big volume of research in this country consequences are inconclusive and as Borg ( 1999 ) discusses our apprehension of the procedures of grammar instruction as perceived by linguistic communication instructors has still a long manner to travel.

Macbeth - Supernatural Theme - 809 Words

The presence of supernatural forces in William Shakespeare s, Macbeth, provides for much of the play s dramatic tension and the mounting suspense. Several supernatural apparitions throughout the play profoundly affect Macbeth and the evil forces eventually claim Macbeth and destroy his morals. Macbeth s ambition was driven by the prophecies of the three witches and unlike Banquo, he was willing to do anything to assure that they actually transpire. Macbeth is horrified at the notion of killing Duncan, his King and kinsman, but he eventually succumbs to the evil forces and this leads to his downfall. Macbeth further compromises his honor by arranging the murder of his best friend, Banquo. Banquo s places Macbeth in a precarious†¦show more content†¦Macbeth may be subconsciously referring to his conscience that has plagued him since the first appearance of the three weird sisters. Banquo s ghost appears during the banquet because it provides for an extremely suspenseful scene. Macbeth is pitted in an internal conflict and is so tormented by guilt that he could confess to his actions at any time. The tension only rises as Macbeth suffers a breakdown and crumbles in front of many distinguished guests, only heightening any prior suspicions they may have had. If Banquo didn t appear during the scene, Macbeth would only remain content that his friend had been murdered knowing that the task of keeping Banquo s children off the throne had grown much easier. Banquo s appearance helps to portray Macbeth as a character because it shows that although he has lost most of his decency, he still is embattled and deeply affected by the appearance of his deceased friend. Banquo s surfacing is only an example of an important theme in Macbeth, the supernatural. Macbeth is a powerful but flawed character and the presence of these evil forces tempt him and plant the seed that leads to his own destruction. Despite being a formidable warrior, Macbeth is not presen ted at first as someone with a natural disposition to commit murder. Macbeth is at first wary of the prophetic messages from the three witches but upon hearing that he will be given the title of Thane of Cawdor, he isShow MoreRelatedTheme Of Supernatural In Macbeth773 Words   |  4 PagesShakespeares Macbeth, the supernatural and the role it plays in motivating characters is present throughout the duration of the play. The supernatural causes conflict in the play and the prophecies from the witches in act one is the inciting action. The apparition, Banquos ghost, and the dagger are examples of how the presence of the supernatural causes conflict. The theme of the supernatural causing conflict in Macbeth plays an important role in the plot of the play. The witches in Macbeth play a criticalRead MoreThe Importance of the Theme of the Supernatural in William Shakespeares Macbeth951 Words   |  4 PagesThe Importance of the Theme of the Supernatural in William Shakespeares Macbeth The supernatural in Elizabethan times was seen as a very real threat to society. The public thought that there were such things as witches who could perform acts of the supernatural such as turning humans into animals and causing changes in the weather. Any mention of the supernatural in these times scared the public and many people, mainly women, were executed on the thought that theyRead MoreAnalysis Of The Tragedy Of Macbeth1207 Words   |  5 Pages The ‘Tragedy of Macbeth’ (also known as ‘Macbeth’) is a play written by William Shakespeare and it was first performed in 1606. This play presents plenty of themes through the action and dialogue throughout the play. 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