Every Text Has Its Use By Date Essay

I think the possibility of each text having an utilization by date is wrong and I will along these lines contend against the subject. There are a couple of things which can assist with keeping writings from ever having their utilization by date and subsequently demonstrating my contention. For instance, messages, for example, Macbeth, can generally be changed marginally and deciphered contrastingly to make them fascinating over and over, for old and new crowds. Likewise, in light of the fact that a content was composed a significant stretch of time prior doesn’t imply that it still won’t be intriguing, as the occasions and topics in it can in any case be applicable to the present time and its happenings. One of the fundamental reasons that demonstrates that messages don’t have an utilization by date is the way that a more established book can include occasions or thoughts that are pertinent to current audiences’ day by day lives. A portion of the thoughts investigated in Macbeth are desire, blame, eagerness, pitilessness, threats among great and insidiousness, the standard of pioneer, the reason for human presence and otherworldly happenings. These all connection with people groups each day life. For instance, aspiration was a central point in Macbeth and assumes a significant job in basically everyone’s day by day life. In Macbeth it was aspiration that drove Macbeth to submit the demonstrations that he did and in current occasions business is turning out to be increasingly more serious in today’s society so subsequently desire, and its damaging nature, turns out to be a greater amount of an issue. Likewise, the possibility of threats among great and malevolence, request and scatter and the standard of a pioneer, which are significant parts of Macbeth, are applicable to the military activity in the Iraq War which has influenced a ton of the world. These and different thoughts intrigue individuals from record-breaking periods as a few, if not all, of these thoughts will influence them. Another primary explanation that shows a book doesn’t have an utilization by date is the way that they can generally be appropriated. Assignment is when something old is transformed into something new. For this situation it would be taking an old book and transforming it to suit a cutting edge crowd, for the most part by making a film form. For instance, in one example the Shakespearean content â€Å"Romeo and Juliet† was transformed into a film that utilized just the plot of the first content and utilized the settings of present day life and a cutting edge content which permitted the crowd to identify with additional to the film. This is an ideal case of the way that a content which is many years old can at present be engaging. At the point when a film is appropriated it can interest a more extensive crowd, as not every person enjoys or comprehends the style of composing used to compose the first content. On the off chance that writings are appropriated thusly they will keep on engaging crowds and subsequently, never wind up having an utilization by date. A film rendition of a more established book, particularly a Shakespearean one, can be extremely powerful in conveying the first to text to a more extensive crowd. A film form makes the content simpler for the crowd to comprehend as it gives visual pictures to assist them with acknowledging what’s really going on and what the characters are stating, as many individuals wouldn’t completely comprehend what was being said when the early English style of composing, that Shakespeare utilizes, is utilized. New translations likewise help to keep messages and their film adaptations fascinating to new crowds and crowds that have seen it previously. In Polanski’s variant of Macbeth Polanski chose to include a scene, which wasn’t in the first content, into the film. He additionally changed the manner in which things occurred in a portion of the scenes, for instance, when Macbeth comes back to the witches, rather than the phantoms showing up he sees totally various dreams that give him alerts and forecasts. Another motivation to additionally show that messages don’t have an utilization by date is the point that in light of the fact that a content is old doesn’t mean it’s not engaging or fascinating to present day perusers. Messages, for example, Macbeth and numerous other of Shakespeare’s plays are still viewed as probably the best plays at any point composed despite the fact that they were composed several years back. At times, crowds may discover these writings fascinating and engaging in light of the fact that they’re written in an old style of English which is not, at this point utilized. At the point when this is the situation it plainly shows that the possibility of writings having an utilization by date as mistaken. Taking everything into account, I feel that the focuses introduced adequately demonstrate that elegantly composed writings don't have an utilization by date. On the off chance that a content is elegantly composed it will keep on being esteemed regardless of how old it is. Particularly because of the way that, in light of the fact that a content is old doesn’t mean it’s done fascinating to present day crowds.

The Political and Social Impact of Global Warming Free Essays

string(75) up into two gatherings, man-made or anthropogenic causes, and characteristic causes. Circumstance Analysis Global warming, otherwise called the green house impact is a theme that has gotten a lot of consideration as of late; yet our environmental change is certifiably not an ongoing issue. It has been transforming over numerous years. What is expanding is the pace of progress; it is quickening because of the development of the human populace. We will compose a custom article test on The Political and Social Impact of Global Warming or on the other hand any comparable subject just for you Request Now The development of our populace has expanded our utilization of fuel, land, and assembling. These are expanding outflows into our air that increments worldwide warming.Global warming starts when daylight arrives at Earth. The mists, climatic particles, intelligent ground surfaces and sea surface at that point reflected around 30 percent of it over into space, while the remaining is consumed by seas, terrains and air. This thusly warms the planet’s surface and climate, making life conceivable. As Earth heated up, this sunlight based vitality is transmitted by warm radiation or infrared warmth, venturing out straightforwardly out to space, hence cooling the Earth.However, a portion of the active radiation is re-consumed via carbon dioxide, water fume and different gases in the climate and is emanated back to Earth’s surface; these gases are known as ozone depleting substances because of their warmth catching limit. This re-ingestion process is normally acceptable; the Earth’s normal surface temperature would be freezing notwithstanding the ozone harming substances. The issue starts when the convergence of ozone harming substances in the environment were misleadingly raised by mankind at an ever-expanding rate since the previous 250 years.As of 2004, more than 8 billion tons of carbon dioxide was siphoned out every year; normal carbon sinks, for example, woodlands and the sea assimilated a portion of this, while the rest collected in the air. A huge number of p ounds of methane are created in landfills and farming decay of biomass and animal excrement. Nitrous oxide is discharged into the air by nitrogen-based manures and other soil the board rehearses. Once discharged, these ozone harming substances remain in the environment for quite a long time or longer.According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), carbon dioxide and methane levels have expanded by 35 and 148 percent since the 1750 modern transformation. Pale atmosphere readings taken from ice centers and fossil records going back to 650 000 years show that the two gases are at their most significant levels. Warm radiation is impeded further by the expanded centralizations of ozone harming substances, bringing about what is known as improved an unnatural weather change. As the world keeps on expending perpetually petroleum product vitality, ozone harming substance fixations will proceed to rise, and with them Earth’s temperature.The IPCC gauges that dependent on conceivable emanation situations, normal surface temperatures could increment somewhere in the range of 2 °C and 6 °C before the finish of the 21st century. Kept warming at current rates p resents genuine outcomes. Low-lying waterfront locales, with thick populace, are particularly powerless against atmosphere shifts, with the less fortunate nations and little island countries having the hardest time adjusting. It has been anticipated that by 2080, 13 to 88 million individuals around the globe would lose their home to floods. B. Proclamation of the Problem Global warming is influencing numerous pieces of the world.Global warming makes the ocean rise, and when the ocean rises, the water covers many swamp islands. This is a major issue for a large number of the plants, creatures, and individuals on islands. The water covers the plants and makes some of them kick the bucket. At the point when they bite the dust, the creatures lose a wellspring of food, alongside their environment. In spite of the fact that creatures have a superior capacity to adjust to what occurs than plants do, they may bite the dust too. At the point when the plants and creatures bite the dust, individuals lose two wellsprings of food, plant food and creature food. They may likewise lose their homes. Thus, they would likewise need to leave the region or die.This would be known as a break in the natural way of life, or a chain response, one thing happening that prompts another, etc. The seas are influenced by an unnatural weather change in different manners, also. Numerous things that are going on to the sea are connected to an unnatural weather change. One thing that is going on is warm water, caused from a dangerous atmospheric devation, is hurting and slaughtering green growth in the sea. Green growth are a maker that you can see gliding on the highest point of the water. (A maker is something that makes nourishment for different creatures through photosynthesis, similar to grass. This gliding green growth is food to numerous customers in the sea. (A shopper is something that eats the makers. ) One sort of a shopper is little fish. There are numerous others like crabs, a few whales, and numerous different creatures. Less green growth is an issue on the grounds that there is less nourishment for us and numerous creatures in the ocean. A dangerous atmospheric devation is doing numerous things to individuals just as creatures and plants. It is executing green growth, however it is likewise pulverizing numerous tremendous timberlands. The contamination that causes a dangerous atmospheric devation is connected to corrosive downpour. Corrosive downpour step by step crushes nearly all that it touches.Global warming is additionally causing a lot more flames that crash entire timberlands. This happens in light of the fact that an Earth-wide temperature boost can make the earth hot. In timberlands, a few plants and trees leaves can be dry to the point that they burst into flames. http://library. thinkquest. organization/CR0215471/global_warming. html C. Significance of the Study Global warming is â€Å"the most noteworthy natural test the world has ever confronted. † It is significant for us to comprehend Global Warming since we may settle on an inappropriate choices. For instance, imagine a scenario in which a worldwide temperature alteration turns out to be simply one more normal cycle and the cynics are right?We might be investing all our energy and assets attempting to diminish CO2 at that point acknowledge we ought to have been burning through the entirety of our assets attempting to get ready for it. Through this examination paper, perusers can find plentiful data about Global Warming, more exhaustive than the plain news being distributed in papers, or communicated in TV or radio. An Earth-wide temperature boost is brought about by numerous things. The causes are separated into two gatherings, man-made or anthropogenic causes, and regular causes. You read The Political and Social Impact of Global Warming in class Papers We are encountering various changes to our regular lives.This investigate paper is a major assistance wherein the perusers will have a more extensive and spruce methodology with respect to the subject. Moreover, especially the adolescent, will be profited by this investigation. It will open their young and basic personalities into ills of their condition and their part today or in future revamping the garbage of good and better spot to live, our condition. It will be a guide for them, for us, to be ONE. D. Extension and Delimitation The an unnatural weather change contention is a continuous debate about the impacts of people on worldwide atmosphere and about what arrangements ought to be executed to maintain a strategic distance from conceivable unfortunate impacts of atmosphere change.The an unnatural weather change discussion is an assortment of questions with respect to the nature, causes, and outcomes of a worldwide temperature alteration. The contested issues incorporate the reasons for expanded worldwide normal air temperature, particularly since the mid-twentieth century, regardless of whether this warming pattern is remarkable or inside typical climatic varieties, whether m ankind has contributed fundamentally to it, and whether the expansion is entirely or incompletely an ancient rarity of poor estimations. Extra debates concern assessments of atmosphere affectability, forecasts of extra warming, and what the outcomes of an unnatural weather change will be.The discussion is essentially more articulated in the well known media than in the logical literature,[1] where there is an accord that worldwide surface temperatures have expanded in ongoing decades and that the pattern is caused chiefly by human-incited emanations of ozone harming substances. No logical assortment of national or worldwide standing can't help contradicting this view,[2][3] however a couple of associations hold reserved positions. III. A. Rundown The term a worldwide temperature alteration essentially implies that the worldwide atmosphere is warming.Humans are prominently thought to be the reason for an unnatural weather change. Further, an unnatural weather change is generally thought to be hurtful to people and to plant and creature life. An Earth-wide temperature boost is a usually talked about and discussed logical point both in the media and in mainstream researchers. An Earth-wide temperature boost is a case of worldwide climatic change. To comprehend the idea of a dangerous atmospheric devation and settle on choices about how to react to the apparently opposing data got from different sources, it is critical to recognize atmosphere and weather.Weather applies to transient changes in properties of the lower air, for example, temperature, relative stickiness, precipitation, overcast spread, barometric weight, and wind speed. Atmosphere is the general example of climate conditions, regular variety, and climate limits over a long timeâ€at least thirty years. A late spring with record high temperatures is certifiably not a sign that a dangerous atmospheric devation is happening. A winter with record cold isn't evidence that a worldwide temperature alteration isn't occurring.Climate change, particularly worldwide environmental change, must be resolved from worldwide midpoints of climate conditions gathered, arrived at the midpoint of, and looked at over decades. C. Proposal Global warming alludes to the Earth’s air and seas bit by bit warming to a limited extent that disturbs balance, a difficult that is consistently deteriorating. It seems like an issue unreasonably monstrous for any one individual to take on, yet it truly isn’t. Consolidating any couple of these recommendations can make even more an emotional impact than the vast majority understand.The objective is to radiate less carbon dioxide into the climate. Guidelines Drive less. Take bicycles, walk or carpool at whatever point conceivable. Think about putting resources into a

24 Hours of Free College Essay Reviews on Black Friday!

24 Hours of Free College Essay Reviews on Black Friday! Black Friday Free Essay Help Starts Now! Black Friday Free Essay Help Starts Now! BEST. BLACK FRIDAY. EVER. Just in time to help you make the most of Thanksgiving break, we  are  offering FREE COLLEGE ESSAY HELP ALL DAY to all college and grad school applicants in need of a little essay inspiration and admissions-related insight. For 24 hours, we are  offering our expert help in the form of: FREE 15-minute consultations for the first 100  people to email us a draft* FREE answers to your burning questions from our expert advisors via Twitter, Facebook, and  Tumblr  starting at 9am EST So hit us with  your most perplexing essay writing questions and sling those college essay myths for us to bust. We’re be ready to dispense our expert advice and lead you down the path to essay success just in time for you to click “submit.” *See Facebook or Eventbrite page for official rules. Follow the official event  on  Facebook  or Eventbrite  for more info! About Thea HogarthView all posts by Thea Hogarth »

How to Do Your Homework the Right Way

Have you ever wondered why some of your classmates always manage to do all their homework on time and even manage to do something on top of it, while you constantly struggle to complete the bare minimum on time and never seem to have enough hours for anything else? Let us tell you a secret – it very rarely has something to do with a natural talent. In absolute majority of cases it is all about the right organization and approach to the work at hand. Want to know what it means? Read on. Keep Track of Your Homework If you want to be on top of things, you should always know exactly how much homework you have at the moment and when each part of it is due. This way you will always know what your current workload is, which days are going to be especially homework-heavy, what long-term projects you are dealing with and so on. It is important to keep all this information in a separate location, where it will be impossible to mix it up with something else. A separate notebook, calendar, day planner – anything will do as long as you don’t forget to make the new entries as they come and keep them up-to-date. If you prefer high-tech approach, you may use a homework organizing app – their name is legion, and they are basically interchangeable. Here are some tips that will make it more efficient: Organize homework chronologically, not in the order it is assigned but in the order of deadlines. When you are assigned a large, long-term project you are not going to start working on it right away, so make sure you remember about it – stick a Post-It note in a conspicuous place or set a reminder on your phone. This way it won’t come as a surprise that you have a research paper due tomorrow morning and forgotten all about it. Write down all the additional information about each assignment: textbook pages, instructions from the teacher, other sources. Look through each assignment as soon as possible and make sure you understand it. A teacher may mix up pages or forget to mention some crucial details, you may make a mistake writing the instructions down. You don’t want to find it out the night before the deadline, when it is too late to ask for clarifications. Choose and Prepare Your Workplace Working environment is an important factor in your overall efficiency – which means that you should take its choice and preparation as seriously as possible. Generally, you have two choices at your disposal: to do your homework at home or in a public place, e.g., a library. Both have their benefits and drawbacks, neither is ideal and their appropriateness may differ according to the task at hand, your preferences and many other factors. Source: http://cdn3.gurl.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/homeworkorganizationtips13.jpg Working at home is understandably more flexible – you can take breaks from homework to deal with other things, have full access to your computer and textbooks. Drawbacks come from the same source – home atmosphere produces a relaxing effect on many people, and as a result they tend to drift off to time-wasting activities when they are supposed to be working. If you have a large family in a small living space, there may be many distracting factors as well. Many people actually find that they work better when surrounded by others, which serves as an additional motivation to do their homework in public locations. Libraries, for one, are specifically designed for this purpose – visitors are prohibited from making loud noises or talking at the top of their voices, working places are comfortable, and you can access any literature you may need at the moment’s notice. Plus, most modern libraries have Internet access. It may be a good idea to try out several different places to see where you feel more comfortable and manage to work more efficiently. Also, consider drifting between workplaces from time to time – getting entrenched in your routine too deeply may have an adverse effect on the results of your work, and changing your workplace occasionally is said to be stimulating for your mental activity. Prepare a Schedule This is the single most important point in this guide – if you omit all the rest and implement only this one, you are still going to greatly increase your efficiency. Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZQL_9OM9OVw The majority of problems students face when dealing with homework are caused by lack of organization. They put off each assignment until the last possible moment, ignore long-term projects until it is too late to do a decent job of them, neglect revision and practice – and, as a result, invariably suffer from the lack of time, enormous workloads and frustration. All this can be averted if you do two simple things: prepare a schedule and stick to it. For better or worse, there is no single surefire approach to how you should organize your studies. It depends on your own abilities, your majors, preferences and interests, the kind of school you attend, your academic level and so on. However, here are some suggestions that may help you in inventing the schedule that would suit you best: Set aside a specific period of time every day you are going to dedicate to homework. If possible, make it the same time every day – it will make the formation of the necessary habit easier. After you’ve been starting your homework at the same time for a month, you no longer will have to persuade yourself to do it, no matter how disagreeable a task you are dealing with is. If you’ve completed your homework for tomorrow earlier than expected, start doing assignments for the day after tomorrow. It is a good rule of a thumb to always stay ahead of schedule at least a day. This way, you will have a bit of padding for emergencies: in case your teacher suddenly piles up a mountain of urgent assignments, or you have some personal problems. Besides, you cannot imagine what a gratifying experience it is to have all your homework done three days ahead of schedule and not having to bother about it anymore. Of course, sometimes you will exceed your allotted time and still have some work to do. Make sure to complete it anyway, but note which assignments took you longer than expected to take them into account in future. Account for the breaks. Even if you have a lot of urgent work to do, still make sure to find time for breaks. Different specialists recommend different combinations of work and free time: 45/15 minutes, 50/10, 60/15. Try out different variants and choose the one that suits you best, but don’t omit them altogether. As you get more and more tired, your attention will start slipping, memory will weaken and your efficiency in general is going to suffer. Short periods of rest can prolong the period of maximum efficiency. By the way, rest should be different in quality from your work – don’t just sit surfing the Internet. Stand up, do some squats, go for a quick walk around the block. If you work on a long-term project, set aside some time to do it every day for its entire duration. It is preferable to spend some time on it before you start doing your assignments for tomorrow – thus you won’t be tempted to skip it â€Å"just this once† because you are too tired. Preparations Before getting down to business, you should take care of a few little things. Prepare everything you are going to need (textbooks, pens, pencils, rulers, anything else depending on your task – you should have it prepared beforehand). Eliminate all possible distractions. Source: http://www.read123.co.uk/blog/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/how-to-improve-concentration-RGB.jpg This is one of the reasons to do homework in a library or a similar place – it adds discipline to the atmosphere. At home you are all too likely to start browsing social media, surfing your favorite sites or watching TV. So make sure to eliminate most of these distractions. Turn off your phone. Get as far from TV as possible. Install a browser add-on like LeechBlock that would prevent you from drifting off to distracting websites. Put on headphones and block out the outside noises with some music – just make sure it is either instrumental or in a language you don’t understand, otherwise it will turn into a distraction of its own. Doing Homework Finally. However, as it turns out, there aren’t any magical tricks about actually doing homework – if you’ve done preparatory work, you shouldn’t encounter many problems. Nevertheless, there are some tips that may help you out. Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UT-_G4-fYkw Sort your homework and start doing the most difficult and/or most important assignments first. This will allow you to complete the most disagreeable parts while you are still fresh and have a lot of time, and spend what time is left on the less crucial tasks. It is almost always better to complete assignments one by one from start to finish than to jump between them. This way you’ll concentrate on one thing at a time and use all your attention to solve the current problem without worrying about unfinished business. However†¦ If the task takes too much time, and you still have a lot of work to do, you may put it off until you deal with the rest of your assignments. Even if you won’t be able to complete it after all, it is better to hand in 9 completed and 1 partially completed assignments than 1 completed and 9 you haven’t even started. We are serious about taking breaks! Even if you feel that you are short on time, you should still take breaks – it will increase your efficiency in the long run. However, you should make them strictly timed and immediately go back to work once the allotted free time runs out. Add motivation. Arrange for some pleasant activity immediately after you complete the last of your homework. It may serve not only as one-time incentive, but a useful habit-forming technique – after a while homework completion will get firmly connected in your subconscious with this pleasant activity, making the entire process a lot more palatable. However, don’t give in to the temptation of doing homework higgledy-piggledy to get to that incentive – a certain quality standard should be a prerequisite of getting this reward. Revision is a must. For many people, going through the entire homework one more time after it is seemingly completed is almost unbearable. However, you will do yourself a world of good if you manage to steel yourself and actually do it – preferably after a break. This is yet another reason to always stay ahead of schedule – you will be amazed how many mistakes you can find in your work if you put it aside for a day or two. Some Final Tips One of the biggest problems you are likely to face is the lack of time. However, with a bit of ingenuity you can find just enough extra of this seemingly finite resource to get everything done. Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ib98J80AUNs Start homework immediately after coming home. There are a lot of activities you can easily dispense with – without even noticing it. Keep your homework at hand and take stabs at it whenever you have to wait for something. It is much more beneficial than playing with your phone. Cram some homework into pauses between periods. 10 minutes may not seem like much, but these things do add up. Get some help! There are a lot of people around you who are ready and sometimes happy to help you out. Parents, older siblings, other students, teachers – don’t be shy to address them for some help if you need it. Homework is an integral part of any education, and the ability to properly organize your own independent work is very important. If you manage to prepare and streamline your work, you’ve effectively halved your problems – it is chaos and disorganization that cause failure in most students.

Diabetes Mellitus A Disorder That Affects The Amount Of...

Diabetes mellitus is a disorder that affects the amount of sugar in the blood. There are many types of sugar 2 simpler sugars are called glucose and fructose. Pathophysiology begins when the body does not produce enough insulin to move the glucose into the cell or if the cell stops responding normally to insulin, that resulting increase levels of glucose in the blood and adequate amount of glucose in the cells together produce the symptoms and complications of diabetes. There are two types of diabetes, type 1 or also called insulin-dependent. Type 2 also called non-insulin dependent diabetes. Others like to include pre0diabetes in which blood glucose levels are too high to be named normal but not high enough to be called diabetes.†¦show more content†¦In cases like those one as nurse must do test that the physician orders to diagnose diabetes. Some of the ways to see the early symptoms are vision exams, I O measurements and daily weights. Our plan as nurses would be to prov ide IV fluids to prevent dehydration and increase nutrition to prevent extreme weight loss. (Mayo Clinic Type 1 Diabetes, 1998-2014) The next type of diabetes is type 2 or also called non-insulin dependent is a chronic condition that affects the way your body metabolizes sugar (glucose), which is the important source of the fuel. In this case the body either resists the effects of insulin or doesn’t produce enough insulin to maintain a normal glucose level. This is more common in adults and is manageable with eating well, exercise and maintaining a healthy weight. In some cases if changing lifestyle doesn’t help patient may need diabetic medication or insulin therapy. (Mayo Clinic Type 1 Diabetes, 1998-2014) Patients with type 2 may show symptoms slower, some complaints similar to type 1 for example increase thirst and urination as well as weight loss. In those cases complaints of slow healing may occur. A treatment plan for these patients would be monitoring intake and output, daily weights and nutrition to help with healing process. With Diabetes there are either rapid showing symptoms or a slow, gradual symptoms that patient will come across with. Type 1 diabetes patients may experience sign and symptoms at a faster rate,

Organizational Change Development Free Essays

Organizational Change: â€Å"No man ever steps in the same river twice, for it’s not the same river and he’s not the same man. â€Å", -Heraclitus. Change is the one thing that we must all face. We will write a custom essay sample on Organizational Change Development or any similar topic only for you Order Now Every organization must change not only to survive, but also to retain its relevance in a world of intense competition, constant scientific progress, and rapid communication. It is inevitably necessary because without change organizations would be left behind and looses their competitive advantages. This is no more so than in today’s technological age.New products and innovations come onto the market quicker than ever before. Some companies are able to cut costs and produce a better, cheaper product by taking advantage of the latest technology. Those companies who are unwilling or unable to keep up generally do not last very long in today’s market. There are many aspects of change including the planning, implementation, and managing thereof. But in order for change to bring a benefit and advance an organization to a higher level of service and operation, that change must be driven by knowledge.Background of Organizational Change: The roots of organization change began to grow almost a century ago, when social scientists and business writers first tried to address the human-organizational conflicts beginning to emerge in modern industrial society. After the Industrial Revolution, by the middle of the twentieth century there were established a defining feature of U. S. culture. Hierarchically structured corporations categorized employees neatly into power levels. They also required people to perform as well-oiled parts, subjugating individuality to the good of the whole.Machines became not only the instruments of economic progress, but a metaphor for how organizations should operate. This metaphor was quickly translated into theory. Starting in the 1880s, Frederick Taylor developed a method of â€Å"scientific management† that even today influences work design. The method involves dividing tasks into the smallest possible units and enforcing strict performance specifications for each employee. During the early years of the 20th century, the social sciences began to emerge as recognized disciplines engaging in quantitative and qualitative research. Sociologists and psychologists began to study the â€Å"human element† in groups and organizations. During the 1920s, Mary Parker Follett’s visionary work on authority relationships anticipated later theories of participative management and conflict resolution. At about the same time, between 1924-1932, a groundbreaking series of studies took place at the Hawthorne Electric Works in Chicago. Conducted by Fritz Roethlisberger and others under the direction of Elton Mayo, these studies established a new understanding of the effect of social relationships on productivity.Mayo’s book on the Hawthorne Studies has been cited as â€Å"the first major call for a human relations movement†[1] In the 1930s and into the 1940s, a growing body of literature explored organizational behavior, human motivation, leadership, and the effect of organization structure on individuals. Perhaps the most influential figure during this period was psychologist Kurt Lewin, who is wide ly considered the â€Å"grandfather† of organization change. Lewin’s theories integrated the individual, organization, and environment, proposing that none could be understood without reference to the others. His Action Research Model provided the first practical application of theory to organization change processes, and this model became the basis for many subsequent theories and applications. In the last few years of his life, between 1944 and 1947, Lewin launched two innovative research organizations: The Commission on Community Interrelations, organized to investigate group dynamics especially in the context of ethnic, racial, and religious diversity. The Research Center for Group Dynamics (at the MassachusettsInstitute of Technology), was organized, in Lewin’s words, to discover â€Å"scientific methods of studying and changing group life and the development of concepts and theories of group dynamics. â€Å"[2] What is organizational change? Organizational change means any change that occurs in the work environment. The change could be minor of major. Usually Organizational change re-aligns organizational systems and deal with the factors prevailing in the external environm ent of an organization. Sometimes, a change is effected to revamp the internal systems of the organization. Organizational change can be described as a situation which emerge due to some management decisions that have an effect on employees. To understand Organizational Change we have to know about ‘change’ at first. In general sense, change is any alteration accruing in the work environment that affects the ways in which employee must acts. This change may be planned or unplanned, catastrophic or evolutionary, positive or negative, strong or weak, slow or rapid, and stimulated either internally or externally. R. M. Hodgetts says, â€Å"change is any modification or alteration of the status quo. Mainly there are two types of change as- 1) Planned change; and 2) Unplanned change. 1) Planned change: when pre-determined change is happened in an organization, its called planned change. According to Griffin, â€Å" Planned change that is designed and implemented in an orderly and timely fashion in anticipation on future events. † There are two goals of planned change, i) It seeks to improve the ability of the organization to adopt to changes in its environment. ii) It seeks to change employee behavior. Two terms used in planned change, are- ‘First Order Change’ which is linier and continuous change; and – ‘Second Order Change’ is a change that is multidimensional, multilevel, discontinuous and radical. 2)Reactive Change: It is suddenly happened change which is totally unplanned and can be happened in any time, anywhere. According to Griffin, â€Å"Reactive change means a piecemeal response to circumstances as they developed† Now what is the meaning of Organizational Change? In generally,any structural and functional change of organization to adopt the changing nature of organization.It is transformation of an organization from present state to an expected state. R. W. Griffin says,â€Å" Organizational change is any substantive modification to some part of the organization. † Ivancevich opined, â€Å" Organizational change is the planned attempt by management to improve the overall performance of individuals, groups and the organization by altering structure, behavior and technology. † So, organizational change is the change of structural, technological and humanistic aspects of organization to achieve a predefined goal. Pre condition organizational change:Following precondition should be fulfilled for organizational change- – Clear perception about present situation and humanistic aspect of organization; – Problem identification in the way of organizational change; – Change in motivational activities along with organizational change; and – Resistance attitude should be kept in lower level. Forces for Organizational Change: The forces prompting change can be categorized as, 1. External Change   Forces and 2. Internal Change Forces Forces for Change External Forces Marketplace Government laws and regulationsTechnology Labor markets Economic ; legal changes Competition Physical environment Social ; cultural environment World politics Internal Forces Administrative processes People problems Techno-structural change Nature ; attitude of change The domino effect EXTERNAL CHANGE FORCES External driving forces are those kinds of things, situation, or events that occur outside of the company and are by and large beyond the control of the company. Examples of external driving forces might be, the industry itself, the economy, demographics, competition, political interference, etc. Marketplace.The marketplace, in recent years, has affected organizations by introducing competition. As a result change has occurred in organization. Government laws and regulations: Government laws and regulations are a frequent impetus for change. As a case in point, strict enforcement of Equal Employment Opportunity Commission regulations cause many organizations to examine carefully their hiring, promotion, and pay policies for women and minorities has had a significant impact on the operation of various organization. Technology: Technological innovations have created the need for change in organizations.It gives new speed in the production level of an organization. In communication sector, Computers have made possible high-speed data processing and retrieval of information and have created the need for new positions. Labor markets: The fluctuation of labor markets forces organizational leaders to initiate change. For instance, the education, talents, and attitudes of potential managers play an important role in anorganizational effectiveness. Changes in these facets of the labor force can lead to a shortage or a surplus of qualified teachers.Economic and legal changes: Economic and legal changes affect organization as well. During periods of recession, inflation, customs law or downturns in the local or national economy, the attitudes and morale of some staff members suffer, which may hinder organization performance and forces change. Competition: Organization should be change to survive in the present fully competitive , free and open market economy. Not only at structural level but also in production of goods including size, color, package, standard and price etc. Physical Environment:Due to change in physical environment, sometimes organizational change become unavoidable. For example, if an industry is set up nearby a sea port but the sea p[ort is not usable, then that industry must be change its location ; other necessary matters. Social and Cultural environment: Social process is a dynamic process. Organization should change its activities on the basis of chnge in traditional culture, values and ethics. For example, today man use telephone, mobile to communicate with others instead of letter by post office. World Politics:World politics is another dynamic forces of organizational change. For example, yhe unrest in Middle East, 9/11 of U. S. A. , open market economy in China, Iraq war etc. certainly forces to change concern organizational pattern. INTERNAL CHANGE FORCES Internal driving forces are those kinds of things, situations, events etc. , that occur within an organization and basically under the organizations control. Once again these internal driving forces can affect the organization in either a positive or negative way. OK, some examples of internal driving forces, which includes,Administrative processes: Processes that act as pressures for change include communications, decision making, leadership, and motivational strategies, to name only a few. Breakdowns or problems in any of these processes can create pressures for change. Communications may be inadequate; decisions may be of poor quality; leadership may be inappropriate for the situation; and staff motivation may be nonexistent. Such processes reflect breakdowns or problems in the organizations and may reflect the need for change. People problems:Some symptoms of people problems are poor performance levels of managers and worker; poor management-union relations; and low levels of staff morale and job satisfaction. An employee’s strike, numerous employee complaints, and the filing of grievances are some tangible signs of problems in the internal environment. These factors provide a signal to organizational leaders that change is necessary. In addition, internal pressures for change occur in response to organizational changes that are designed to deal with pressures for change exerted by the external environment. Techno-structural change:Technological innovation and modernization also made bound to change the worker of organization. Nature and attitude of change: If nature and attitude of a worker like his expectation, values, ability are changed, and then organization also will be changed for the development of the organization. The domino effect: An important source of change is the domino effect. Organization is the sum of many department, division, wing and branch. Change of anyone creates impact on the whole organization. This is domino effect. Models of Change Process: Whether they are internal or external driving forces, one thing is certain for both. Change will occur! A company must be cognizant of these changes, flexible, and willing to respond to them in an appropriate way. There are several models for organizational change. Two important of them will be discussed here. Lewin’s Force-Field Theory of Change Lewin’s three step model is one approach to manage planned change. The model suggests that organizations can bring permanent changes in employee behavior by making them unlearn old behaviors and work procedures. To discussing this model he says about two forces, as- i) Driving force; and i) Resisting forces i) Driving force: which force assist to change is known as driving force. ii) Resisting force: which force resist the change is known as resisting force. Larger impacts of these two force occurs change towards that larger forces. Lewin points out that increasing one set of forces without decreasing the other set of forces will increase tension and conflict in the organization. Reducing the other set of forces may reduce the amount of tension. Although increasing driving forces is sometimes effective, it is usually better to reduce the resisting forces because ncreasing driving forces often tends to be offset by increased resistance. Put another way, when we push people, they are likely to push back. Figure 2 illustrates the two sets of forces discussed earlier: forces for change and resistance to change. These are the types of situations that school leaders face and must work with on a daily basis when attempting to effect change. Figure 2. Lewin’s force-field theory of change. As Figure 2 depicts, change results when an imbalance occurs between the ratio of driving forces and resisting forces.Such an imbalance alters the current condition (equilibrium)—it is hoped in the direction planned by the school leader—into a new and desired condition. Once the new, desired condition is reached, the opposing forces are again brought into equilibrium. An imbalance may occur through a change in the velocity of any force, a change in the direction of a force, or the introduction of a new force. Moreover, change involves a sequence of organizational processes that occurs over time. Lewin suggests this process typically requires three steps: i) unfreezing, ii) changing, and iii) refreezing.Unfreezing. This step usually means reducing the forces acting to keep the organization in its current condition. Unfreezing might be accomplished by introducing new information that points out inadequacies in the current state or by decreasing the strength of current values, attitudes, and behaviors. Crises often stimulate unfreezing. Examples of crises are dramatic enrollment declines; demographic shifts in population within an organization; a sudden increase in staff or leader turnover; a costly lawsuit; and an unexpected worker strike. Unfreezing may occur without crises as well. Climate surveys, financial data, and enrollment projections can be used to determine problem areas in an organization and initiate change to alleviate problems before crises erupt. Changing: Once the organization is unfrozen, it can be changed by moving. This step usually involves the development of new values, attitudes, and behaviors through internalization, identification, or change in structure. Some changes may be minor and involve a few members—such as changes in recruitment and selection procedures—and others may be major, involving many participants.Examples of the latter include a new evaluation system, restructuring of jobs and duties performed by staff, or restructuring the organization, which necessitates relocating faculty to different organizational sites within the system. Coleman identifies changing phase by three issues, as- i) Compliance (by taking imposed others will. ) ii) Identification ( Adjustment of employees personality with changing environment ) iii) Internalization ( Facing such problem in work place, employee change his behavior. )Refreezing: The final step in the change process involves stabilizing the change at a new quasi-stationary equilibrium, which is called refreezing. Changes in organizational culture, changes in staff norms, changes in organizational policy, or modifications in organizational structure often accomplish this. (Figure) Comprehensive approach to change: The comprehensive approach to change takes a systems view and delineates a series of specific steps that often leads to successful change. The model is illustrate here by following figure- Recognition of the need of change Establishment of goals for the change Diagnosis of relevant variablesSelection of appropriate change technique Planning for implementation of the change Actual implementation Evaluation and follow up The first step is recognizing the need for change. Reactive change might be triggered by employee complaints, declines in productivity or turnover, court injunctions, sales slumps, or labor strikes. Recognition may simply be managers’ awareness that change in a certain area is inevitable. For example, managers may be aware of the general frequency of organizational change undertaken by most organizations and recognize that their organization should probably follow the same pattern. The immediate stimulus might be the result of a forecast indicating new market potential, the accumulation of a cash surplus for possible investment, or an opportunity to achieve and capitalize on a major technological breakthrough. Managers might also initiate change today because indicators suggest that it will be necessary in the near future. The second step is establishment of goals for the change. To increase market share, to enter new markets, to restore employee morale, to settle a strike, and to identify investment opportunities all might be manager set as goal for change.The third steps is diagnosis of relevant variables. Managers must diagnose what brought on the need for change. Turnover, for example, might be caused by low pay, poor working conditions, poor supervisors, or employee dissatisfaction. Thus, although turnover may be the immediate stimulus for change, managers must understand its cause to make the right change. The next step is to select a change technique that will accomplish the intended goals. If turnover is caused by low pay, a new reward system may be needed. If the cause is poor supervision, interpersonal skill training may be called for.After the appropriate technique has been chosen, its implementation must be planned. Issues to consider include the costs of change, its effects on other areas of the organization, and the degree of employee participation appropriate for the situation. Here the consideration of the question of actual implementation. If the change is implemented as planned, the results should then be evaluated and continuous follow up is necessary for brings any necessary change. Resistance to Change : There is a human tendency to resist change, because it forces people to adopt new ways of doing things.In order to cope with this recurring problem, organizational authority must understand why people resist change. According Fullan, The most powerful impediments to change include uncertainty, concern over personal loss, group resistance, dependence, trust in administration, and awareness of weaknesses in the proposed change (Fullan, 2009) In order to understand the concept of employee resistance, it is critical to define what is meant by the termresistance. Alvin Zander (1950) an early researcher on the subject, defined resistance to change as â€Å"behavior which is intended to protect an individual from the effects of real or imagined change†.Folger Skarlicki (1999) resistance is defined as â€Å"emplo yee behavior that seeks to challenge, disrupt, or invert prevailing assumptions, discourses, and power relations† (p. 3) The Nature and Causes of Resistance Symptoms are the specific behaviors individuals’ exhibit when they are resistant to change. According to Bhutan (1995), it is important to distinguish between the symptoms of resistance to change, and the causes behind it. These behaviors fall into two categories – i) active-resistance or ii)passive-resistance. Symptoms ofActive-resistance include finding fault, ridiculing, appealing to fear, and manipulating. Passive-resistance: Symptoms include agreeing verbally but not following through, feigning ignorance and withholding information. The following are the important resistance in organizational change process- Resistance to Change Uncertainty Concern over personal loss Group resistance Dependence Trust in administration Awareness of weaknesses in the proposed Uncertainty Any change creates some potential uncertainties. Perhaps it is the biggest cause of employee resistance to change.In the facing of impending change, employees may become anxious and nervous about their ability to meet new job demands, their security is threatened or they may dislike ambiguity. Foe example, A teacher may resist change because they are worried about how their work and lives will be affected by the proposed change. Even if they have some appreciable dissatisfaction with their present jobs, they have learned what their range of responsibilities is and what their administrator’s reaction to their behavior will be in certain situations. Concern over Personal LossMost people resist change that might adversely disrupt work arrangements in existing social network which are very important. Organization members may feel change will diminish their decision-making authority, accessibility to information, autonomy, and the inherent characteristics of the job. Besides, appropriate change should benefit the as a whole, but for some staff members, the cost of change in terms of lost power, prestige, salary, quality of work, or other benefits will not be sufficiently offset by the rewards of change. Group Resistance Groups establish norms of behavior and performance that are communicated to members.This communication establishes the boundaries of expected behaviors. Failure to comply with such norms usually results in sanctions against group members by the group. If organizational leaders initiate changes that are viewed as threatening to the staffs’ norms, they are likely to meet with resistance. The more cohesive the staff is, the greater their resistance to change will be. This may explain partially what causes wildcat strikes by teachers when school districts introduce changes without proper notification and preparation. Awareness of Weaknesses in the Proposed ChangeOrganization members may resist change because they are aware of potential problems in the proposed change. If staff express their reasons for resistance to the leader clearly along with adequate substantiation, this form of resistance can be beneficial to the school district/school. Leaders can use these suggestions to make their change proposals more effective. Trust in Administration Organization vary substantially in the degree to which organization members trust the leader. On the one hand, if a change is proposed when trust is low, a natural first reaction is to resist it.On the other hand, when trust is high, organization members are more likely to support a proposed change. Further, under conditions of distrust staff members often resist changes, even when they are understood and they can benefit from them. Dependence All humans begin life in a dependent state. Thus, dependence is instilled in all people to a certain extent. Dependency, in and of itself, is not all bad; but if carried to extremes, dependency on others can lead to resistance to change. For instance, staff members who are highly dependent on their leader for feedback on their performance will probably not adopt ny new methods or strategies unless the leader personally endorses their behavior and indicates how the proposed changes will improve the staff member’s performance. Furtherly S. P. Robbins identifies two types of resistance as: 1) Individual resistance; and 2) Organizational resistance. 1) Individual resistance: we generally tend to comfortable with the status quo and do not change unless change is warranted. Usually he wants to keep present work situation in organization. Because, he is used to with it and he never prefer uncertainty. So he resist the change in organization.Here the following matters are involved- Habit: usually men rely on habits or programmed responces to copy with life’s complexities. But in the context of change, this accustomed tendency becomes a source of resistence. Security: people with a high need of security are likely to resist change because it threatens their feeling of safety. Economic Resistance: as a result of change worker may become loser economically. For instance, fear of technological unemployment, reducing work hour and salary etc. so worker resist any change in organization. Social Resistance:Due to organizational change existing social status of worker may hampered. It also hampers inter-personal relationship within organization. So they resist change. Ignorance of the need for change: no clear idea about the consequences of change ( positive or negative) also promote the employee to resist change in organization. Fear of going lose: sometime some people become gainer as a result of change, but most of the people become looser. As people usually not want to become loosers, they resist change. Poorly planned change: if the standard of change is weak, worker may resist change. Because poor plan of change could not bring success in organization. Reaction to the change agent: If the previous experience of change is not satisfactory, and change agent takes step to bring change in organization, employee usually resists the activities of change agent. Fear of changing the condition of service: As a result of change, if any probability change in basic condition of service, people simply resist this change. Selective information processing: Individuals are guilty of selectively processing information in order to keep their perceptions intact.They hear what they want to hear and they ignore information that challenges the world they’ve created. 2) Organizational Resistance: Organizational change brings structural change in organization, as a result resistance occurs at organization level. The following matters are included in this resistance- Structural inertia: Organizations have built-in mechanisms- like their selection processes and formalized regulation s-to produce stability. When an organization is confronted with change, this structural inertia acts as a counterbalance to sustain stability. Limited focus of change:Organizations are made up of a number of independent subsystem. One can’t be changed without affecting the others. So limited changes in subsystem tend to be nullified by the larger system. Group inertia: Even if individuals want to change their behavior, group norms may act as a constraint. Threat to expertise: Changes in organizational patterns may threaten the expertise of specialized groups. Threat to established power relationships: Any redistribution of decision-making authority can threaten long-established power relationships within the organization. Threat to established resource allocations: Groups in the organization that control sizable resources often see change as a threat. They tend to be content with the way things are. Overcoming Resistance to Change : There are a number of specific ways that resistance to change may be overcome. According to Anderson, six of the most popular and frequently used approaches to overcome resistance to change are the following: -education and communication, -participation and involvement, -facilitation and support, -negotiation and agreement, -manipulation and co-optation, and -explicit and implicit coercion Education and CommunicationResistance can be reduced when leaders/managers communicate with organization members to help them see the need for change as well as the logic behind it. This can be achieved through face-to-face discussions, formal group presentations, or special reports or publications. The approach works providing the source of resistance is inadequate communication and tha t leader-member relations are characterized by mutual trust. If trust does not exist, the change is unlikely to succeed. Participation and Involvement Organization members who participate in planning and implementing a change are less likely to resist it.Prior to making a change, leaders can allow those who oppose the change to express their view on the change, indicate potential problems, and suggest modifications. Such participant involvement can reduce resistance, obtain commitment, and increase the quality of the change decision. Facilitation and Support It is important for leaders to manifest supportive and facilitative leadership behaviors when change is being implemented. This type of leader behavior includes listening to organization member’s ideas, being approachable, and using member’s ideas that have merit.Supportive leaders go out of their way to make the work environment more pleasant and enjoyable. For example, difficult changes may require staff development to acquire new skills necessary to implement the change. Such training will likely diminish resistance to the change. . Negotiation and Agreement Leaders can neutralize potential or actual resistance by providing incentives for cooperation. For example, during collective bargaining between the organization owners and various employee unions, certain concessions can be given to employees in exchange for support of a new program desired by leaders.Such concessions may include salary increases, bonuses, or more union representation in decision making. Leaders can also use standard rewards such as recognition, increased responsibility, praise, and status symbols. Manipulation and Cooptation Manipulation occurs when leaders choose to be selective about who gets what information and how much information, how accurate the information is, and when to disseminate the information to increase the chance that change will be successful. Cooptation involves giving the leaders of a resistance group (e. g. employees or other staff members who represent their work group) a key role in the change decision. The leaders’ advice is sought, not to arrive at a better decision, but to get their endorsement. Both manipulation and cooptation are inexpensive ways to influence potential resisters to accept change, but these techniques can backfire if the targets become aware they are being tricked. Once discovered, the leader’s credibility may suffer drastically. Explicit and Implicit Coercion When other approaches have failed, coercion can be used as a last resort. Some changes require immediate implementation. And change initiators may have considerable power. Such instances lend themselves more readily to the use of coercion to gain compliance to proposed changes. Organization members can be threatened with job loss, decreased promotional opportunities, salary freeze (this technique is used infrequently in public schools), or a job transfer. There are, however, negative effects of using coercion including frustration, fear, revenge, and alienation, which in turn may lead to poor performance, dissatisfaction, and turnover.Organizational Development â€Å"Organizations are like kids, it’s all about development. If you give them good, strong values, a clear vision of the future, and the view that everything is possible, they will grow up to be like that and . . . vice versa. † (Henrietta Zalkind) Change is unavoidable characteristics of nature. It is also inevitable in organizational structure. Change may either positive or negative. When change occur in a positive way and turned towards the desired level of organization- can be termed as organizational development. What is Organizational Development?Generally, Organizational development is the process through which an organization develops the internal capacity to be the most effective it can be in its mission work and to sustain itself over the long term. There are many definitions for organizational development. To set the scene here are a few well know definitions: From Wikipedia: Organization development is a system-wide application of behavioral science knowledge to the planned development and reinforcement of organizational strategies, structures, and processes for improving an organization’s effectiveness.Organization development, according to Richard Beckhard, is defined as: 1. A planned effort†¦ 2. organization-wide†¦ 3. Managed from the top.. . 4. To increase organization effectiveness and health†¦ 5. Through planned interventions in the organization’s ‘processes’, using behavioural science knowledge. According to Keith Davis, â€Å"Organizational development (OD) is the systematic application of behavioral science knowledge at various levels (group, intergroup and total organization) to bring about planned change. † S. P.Robbins says, â€Å"Organizational development is a collection of planned change interventions, built on humanistic democratic values, that seeks to improve organizational effectiveness and employee will-being. † By analyzing above definitions we can findout the following attributes for it: Organizational development is- †¢ A planned process of change. †¢ Applies behavioural science knowledge. †¢ Aims at the change of organization culture. †¢ Aims at reinforcement of organization strategies, structures and processes for improving organization’s effectiveness and health. Applies to an entire system of an organization, department or group as opposed to an aspect of a system. †¢ Targets long term institutionalization of new activities such as operation of self managed or autonomous work teams and other problem solving capabilities. †¢ Encompasses strategy, structure and process changes. †¢ A process managed from the top. Characteristics of Organizational Development : Values of OD This model places human centered values above everything else. They are the engine of its success. These values include mutual trust and confidence, honesty and open communication, sensitivity and to the feeling and emotions of others, shared goals, and a commitment to addressing and resolving conflict[3] There are organizations who value these human attributes above all other quick fix benefits. Stephen Robbins expresses these human values more concisely as follows: a) The individual should be treated with respect and dignity. b) The organization climate should be characterized by trust, openness and support. c) Hierarchical authority and control are not regarded as effective mechanisms. ) Problems and conflicts should be confronted, and not disguised or avoided. e) People affected by change should be involved in its implementation. These values make OD a unique model and it will be shown later why it is the most suitable approach in resolving human afflictions and problems such as poverty alleviation. OD Approaches The distinction between Lewin’s model and Action Research model is in the repetitive nature of action research. Lewin’s model is a once only intervention. Buchanan and Huczynski, (1997) give seven steps that are followed in this intervention. 1.Scouting – the initial stages of consultant and client exchanging ideas on the problem and the appropriate approach. 2. Entry – contract is entered into to formalize the relationship of consultant and client. 3. Diagnosis – information gathering to define the problem and identify causes. 4. Planning – consultant and client members jointly establish the goals of an OD intervention and the proposed approach 5. Action – the intervention strategies are implemented. 6. Stabilization and Evaluation – the change is stabilized (freezing takes place) and the outcomes are assessed. 7. Termination – The consultant withdraws from the assignment.The action research model differs in several particular ways with the Lewin’s model. In action research the outcomes are fed back so that further improvements and changes can be made. This distinguishes this model as a cyclical and iterative process. The research aspect connotes a search for knowledge that may be used elsewhere. It is also a collaborative effort between the consultant and the client’s members who engage in joint planning diagnosis, implementation. Some other characteristics of organizational behavior are- – Humanistic values – Use of change agent – Solving problem – Experimental learning Use of intervention – Intervention at many level; and – Summary and application. Process of Organizational Development: Organizational development is a complex process. Organizational development tries to improve the organization from where it is now to where it is should be. Even then the process continues, since evaluating the outcomes and maintaining the momentum is desirable. The process can be shown here by a figure- Steps of organizational development process: Initial Diagnosis: This is the first step of organizational development process to identifies symptoms and problems and regarding them with importance.It is very important because development activities are taken on the basis of marked problem. Data Collection: Different types of data should be collected for different types of problems. By analyzing this data effective measure can be taken to solve identified problems. Data Feedback: In this phase, reanalyze the data in a careful manner. Here the facts are identifies where the change is necessary. Action Planning and Problem setting: Here the actions are determined that who, when and how the activities are accomplished. Introduce techniques and apply them to solve organizational problems. Use of Intervention:After formulation of action planning, determined that what types of intervention is needed. Advisor helps participants to apply techniques. Evaluation and Follow up: It is last step of organizational development process. It is not enough just implementation of the development activities but some follow up and effective evaluation is also needed. If any problem is followed, amendment steps can be taken. Since the steps of organizational development are part of a whole process, all of them need to be applied if a firm expects to gain the full benefits of organizational development. The whole process can produce quite favorable result.For example, ExxonMobil implemented numerous OD programs, and it reports these results: – Improved supervisor-employee communications – Streamline paperwork requirements – More systematic problem analysis and problem solving – Better interdepartmental relationships The company concluded that the most critical step in OD is obtaining permission, active support, and total involvement from top management. [4] Organizational Development Techniques: The Existence of cer tain conditions in an organization which may be described as the internal environment is sometimes assumed. Those who have been in an organization for too long cease to be conscious of such an environment and probably only newcomers notice such conditions. Different techniques are used when a need arises to change those conditions. Some of those deserve further explanation here. Cultural Analysis This is perhaps one of the most complex change action. Corporate culture is the result of long term social learning and constitutes of basic assumptions, values, norms and artifacts that have worked well in an organization. These are passed on to succeeding generations of employees[5].Some of these may have arisen from the principles of the founder and subsequently reinforced by succeeding top hierarchies of the organization. They may have an emphasis on product quality, customer care or employee relations. When problems arise the first question which would arise is how do we do things here? The answer will inform the type of solution that emerges. Therefore the organizational culture influences organizational strategy, performance and policies. To change organizational culture may be a traumatic experience and will require careful analysis and handling.Such is the trauma that was experienced by American companies in the 1980s when they adopted the Japanese approach which was influence by a strong organizational culture of employee participation, open communication, Security and equality. Process Consultation People conceive consultation as that situation where an expert is invited to advise an organization that is experiencing a problem. Edger Schein, (1998) has distinguished three types of consultations as; -the expertise model, -the doctor – patient model and he process consultation model. The first model assumes that the client purchases from the consultant some expert information or service that he is unable to provide for himself. In the doctor – patient model involves an activity similar to sickness diagnosis. The client who suspects or feels there is something wrong in the organization invites the doctor (consultant) to diagnose the organization so that he can advise on what is not right. The symptoms of the sickness may be low sales, employee instability or falling product quality.The doctor (consultant) diagnoses, prescribes and administers the cure. In this two models the knowledge and expertise remains with the expert and leaves the client fully dependent on the expert for future problems. OD advocates process consultation promoted by Schein who defines the process as: â€Å"The creation of a relationship with the client that permits the client to perceive, understands, and act on the process events that occur in the client’s internal and exter nal environment in order to improve the situation as defined by the client (Schein, 1998, p. 0)†. Schein argues that both the expert and the doctor models are remedial models while as the process consultation model is both remedial and preventive. The purport of this model is to engage an external consultant on a flexible advisory capacity to work with the clients members in diagnosing the problems, planning the actions and finding the solutions together. This way the consultant helps the organization’s individuals to understand internal problems and build capacity to identify appropriate problem – solving action.The consultant need not be an expert in the problem at hand but his expertise is in facilitating a process that carries everybody in the search for solutions. This approach follows the rationale that the answers are with the people. So the only help required is leadership in diagnoses and in the process through the various stages. Structure Change This is a technique that helps change the structure of an organization to make the work more interesting, challenging or productive. It may involve such activities as job enrichment, job enlargement, formation of autonomous work teams or business re – engineering.Other actions may involve decentralization/centralization in an organization, flattening or extending of an organizations structure or even redesigning of focus from region to product or vice versa. Team Building Team work is vital to the functioning of modern organizations. Members of teams bring different strings to the group such as leader, investigator, motivator, finisher, clown, coordinator, thinker, negotiator or politician. These roles are used at different stages of production when such role play becomes essential in the groups work.Teams take over from hierarchical systems where individuals are assumed to know everything depending on their level in the authority ladder. This system denies the organization the cumulative advantage of skills and strengths in different individuals. Role Negotiation A misunderstanding between two individuals in an organization or group can affect its effectiveness. This is usually caused by lack of shared awareness, misunderstanding or lack of trust. This intervention helps to clarify individual perceptions and mutual expectations so that differences can be identified and reconciled or resolved.Some other techniques are as follows- – Survey feedback to trace out the attitude, idea and satisfaction of employee within organization. It helps organizational development process. – Education for increase employees’ skill, ability and sympathy to others. – Third party peace making to reduce conflict and difficulties within organization. – Techno-structural activities for restructuring organization with division of work, expansion, rescheduled activities etc. – Process consultation of development consultant. – Life and career planning to develop employees’ socio-economic condition. Coaching and counseling to divert employee attitude towards the development of the organization. Managerial Grid: Professor Robert Blake J. Mouton introduce a program for organizational development by emphasizing two basic quality of leadership. This are- 1) Concern for people; and 2) Concern for production. The process can be present here by a figure, 1. 1- Impoverished Management: Here management with employee or production process, no relation between them. Management is not participatory. 9. 1- Task Management: Here, management normally autocrat in nature. Only aim to maximize production. There is no humanity 1. 9- Country Club management: Here all concern pay to the people, not to the production. 5. 5- Middle of the road management. Here average concern about employee and production. 9. 9- Team management: Here, maximum concern about employee and also for production. Benefits of Organizational Development: Organizational development is the useful process. Its chief advantage is that it tries to deal with changes in a whole organization or major unit of it. Some other benefits are- †¢ change through organization †¢ greater otivation †¢ increased productivity †¢ better quality of work †¢ higher job satisfaction †¢ improved teamwork †¢ better resolution of conflict †¢ commitment to objectives †¢ increase willingness to change †¢ reduced absence †¢ lower turnover †¢ creation of learning individual and group etc. Limitations of organizational development: As with any complex program, organizational development has some limitations also, including- †¢ Major time requirements †¢ Substantial expense Delayed payoff period †¢ Possible failure †¢ Possible invasion of privacy †¢ Possible psychological harm †¢ Potential conformity †¢ Emphasis on group process rathe r than performance †¢ Possible conceptual ambiguity How to cite Organizational Change Development, Papers

The End Of Eden Desertification In Africa Essay Example For Students

The End Of Eden Desertification In Africa Essay Africa is a continent laden with diversity. Diversity in climate, vegetation and people. A land of potential beyond imagination, yet ruined by mans wrecking influence. Not all man however is to blame, primarily those who arrived as settlers from Europe to colonise Africa about 200 years ago. These settlers caused radical change in Africa. This change spoilt the delicate natural balance, which had evolved over thousands of years. Today the economies of Africa are the weakest in the world, and the desperation of the rural population has also had adverse effects on the environment. The people of Africa must learn not to ruin the environment, as it is a non-renewable resource, it will disappear. We will write a custom essay on The End Of Eden Desertification In Africa specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now A consequence of mans destruction is the fact that a mere 1% of Africas vast flocks of wildlife remains, a horrific statistic that indicates what Africa once was. All that is left are slight fractions of its former glory and greatness. The greatest of all mans disturbance of the natural balance is desertification. Desertification is the environmental transformation from savannah grassland into arid desert-like land. Many of the factors causing desertification are natural, such as drought and soil erosion, but the effects of man on the environment leading to desertification are plentiful. The population of Africa has boomed over the last century and the food supplies available are dreadfully insufficient and many areas of Africa now rely on foreign food aid. However as the amount of food aid sent to Africa has increased so the production of food in Africa has decreased. This shows that the people are relying on food aid, and have stopped producing food. This just makes the desperate situation even worse. The primary food source for the rural population is their domestic livestock, mainly cattle and goats. In some areas a herdsmans livestock is a symbol of his status and wealth and large herds are kept. These herds destroy the natural vegetation. Cattle originate from Europe and Asia, and are not suited to the climate found in Africa, nor are they resistant to African diseases. Cattle, even in small concentrations, create cattle paths that destroy natural vegetation and create channels for water to flow down. Therefore infiltration of rainwater decreases and the run-off increases, carrying soil with it and robbing the soil of vital nutrients. Agriculture is also very important in feeding the masses, and is practised all over Africa. Agriculture has many detrimental effects on the environment. Vast land is needed to plant the crops, and equally vast amounts of water are required to irrigate and sustain them. Great areas of natural vegetation are cleared to make way for agriculture; this leads to soil erosion, another factor causing desertification. The millions of tons of soil carried away by our rivers not only cause flash floods and reduce the carrying capacity of dams; they also destroy many areas of fertile land by removing the fertile topsoil. Man is not the only animal to blame. Elephants are also extremely destructive; they destroy trees and other vegetation and depend on great amounts of food and water to survive. The over concentration of elephants in an area can lead to complete destruction, such as in certain areas of Kruger National Park and in Chobe National Park in Botswana. One might say that this is a natur al factor, and is not mans fault, but before man arrived and fenced areas, forcing elephants to concentrate in smaller areas, there wasnt a problem. Fences have been erected all over Africa, dividing it into a maze of farms and properties; these fences have wreaked havoc with the migratory routes of many animals, such as wildebeest. The fences cut the animals off from their perennial water supplies, and force them to find new water holes. Foreign elements quickly kill the animals in new territory as they adapt to their new surroundings, thus a drop in their numbers occurs. Another factor hampering the migration of animals is the construction of dams, not only do dams inundate some previously dry areas up stream, they dry up previously wet areas downstream. These areas may have been drinking holes for the animals during migration, but now they have to find alternative supplies. .ub495ab323fb4207310078fec3b393075 , .ub495ab323fb4207310078fec3b393075 .postImageUrl , .ub495ab323fb4207310078fec3b393075 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ub495ab323fb4207310078fec3b393075 , .ub495ab323fb4207310078fec3b393075:hover , .ub495ab323fb4207310078fec3b393075:visited , .ub495ab323fb4207310078fec3b393075:active { border:0!important; } .ub495ab323fb4207310078fec3b393075 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ub495ab323fb4207310078fec3b393075 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ub495ab323fb4207310078fec3b393075:active , .ub495ab323fb4207310078fec3b393075:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ub495ab323fb4207310078fec3b393075 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ub495ab323fb4207310078fec3b393075 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ub495ab323fb4207310078fec3b393075 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ub495ab323fb4207310078fec3b393075 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ub495ab323fb4207310078fec3b393075:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ub495ab323fb4207310078fec3b393075 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ub495ab323fb4207310078fec3b393075 .ub495ab323fb4207310078fec3b393075-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ub495ab323fb4207310078fec3b393075:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Inherit The Wind (931 words) EssayThe tsetse fly